Respiratory tract infections among French Hajj pilgrims from 2014 to 2017

Respiratory tract infections (RTIs) are common among Hajj pilgrims, but risk factors for RTIs and respiratory pathogen acquisition during the Hajj are not clearly identified. Based on previous studies, most frequent pathogens acquired by Hajj pilgrims were investigated: rhinovirus, human coronaviruses, influenza viruses, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae. 485 pilgrims were included. 82.1% presented with RTIs. Respiratory chronic diseases were associated with cough, Influenza-like illness (ILI) and the acquisition of H. influenzae. Vaccination against invasive pneumococcal diseases (IPD) and influenza was associated with a decrease in the acquisition of S. pneumoniae and prevalence of ILI (aRR = 0.53, 95%CI [0.39–0.73] and aRR = 0.69, 95%CI [0.52–0.92] respectively). Individuals carrying rhinovirus and H. influenzae-S. pneumoniae together were respectively twice and five times more likely to have respiratory symptoms. Individual with H. influenzae-K. pneumoniae carriage were twice (p = 0.04) as likely to develop a cough. The use of disposable handkerchiefs was associated with a decrease in the acquisition of S. aureus (aRR = 0.75, 95%CI [0.57–0.97]). Results could be used to identify pilgrims at increased risk of RTIs and acquisition of respiratory pathogens. Results also confirm the effectiveness of influenza and IPD vaccinations in reducing ILI symptoms and acquisition of S. pneumoniae carriage respectively.