Mitigation of lampricide toxicity to juvenile lake sturgeon: the importance of water alkalinity and life stage

The pesticide, 3-trifluoromethyl-4-nitrophenol (TFM), is used to control invasive sea lamprey (Petromyzon marinus) populations in the Laurentian Great Lakes. Applied to infested tributaries, it is most toxic to larval sea lamprey, which have a low capacity to detoxify TFM. However, TFM can be toxic to lake sturgeon (Acipenser fulvescens), whose populations are at risk throughout the basin. They are most vulnerable to TFM in early life stages, with the greatest risk of non-target mortality occurring in waters with high alkalinity. We quantified TFM toxicity and used radio-labelled TFM ((14)C-TFM) to measure TFM uptake rates in lake sturgeon in waters of different pH and alkalinity. Regardless of pH or alkalinity, TFM uptake was 2–3-fold higher in young-of-the-year (YOY) than in age 1-year-plus (1+) sturgeon, likely due to higher mass-specific metabolic rates in the smaller YOY fish. As expected, TFM uptake was highest at lower (pH 6.5) versus higher (pH 9.0) pH, indicating that it is taken up across the gills by diffusion in its unionized form. Uptake decreased as alkalinity increased from low (~50 mg L(−1) as CaCO(3)) to moderate alkalinity (~150 mg L(−1) as CaCO(3)), before plateauing at high alkalinity (~250 mg L(−1) as CaCO(3)). Toxicity curves revealed that the 12-h LC(50) and 12-h LC(99.9) of TFM to lake sturgeon were in fact higher (less toxic) than in sea lamprey, regardless of alkalinity. However, in actual treatments, 1.3–1.5 times the minimum lethal TFM concentration (MLC = LC(99.9)) to lamprey is applied to maximize mortality, disproportionately amplifying TFM toxicity to sturgeon at higher alkalinities. We conclude that limiting TFM treatments to late summer/early fall in waters of moderate-high alkalinity, when lake sturgeon are larger with lower rates of TFM uptake, would mitigate non-target TFM effects and help conserve populations of these ancient, culturally important fishes.