Mining the Methylome Reveals Extensive Diversity in Staphylococcus epidermidis Restriction Modification

Staphylococcus epidermidis is a significant opportunistic pathogen of humans. Molecular studies in this species have been hampered by the presence of restriction-modification (RM) systems that limit introduction of foreign DNA. Here, we establish the complete genomes and methylomes for seven clinically significant, genetically diverse S. epidermidis isolates and perform the first systematic genomic analyses of the type I RM systems within both S. epidermidis and Staphylococcus aureus. Our analyses revealed marked differences in the gene arrangement, chromosomal location, and movement of type I RM systems between the two species. Unlike S. aureus, S. epidermidis type I RM systems demonstrate extensive diversity even within a single genetic lineage. This is contrary to current assumptions and has important implications for approaching the genetic manipulation of S. epidermidis. Using Escherichia coli plasmid artificial modification (PAM) to express S. epidermidis hsdMS, we readily overcame restriction barriers in S. epidermidis and achieved electroporation efficiencies equivalent to those of modification-deficient mutants. With these functional experiments, we demonstrated how genomic data can be used to predict both the functionality of type I RM systems and the potential for a strain to be electroporation proficient. We outline an efficient approach for the genetic manipulation of S. epidermidis strains from diverse genetic backgrounds, including those that have hitherto been intractable. Additionally, we identified S. epidermidis BPH0736, a naturally restriction-defective, clinically significant, multidrug-resistant ST2 isolate, as an ideal candidate for molecular studies.