Advances in Nutrition and Management of Calves and Heifers

Strides have been significant in the knowledge of calf and heifer rearing during the last 25 yr. Much information has been gathered on digestive enzymes, development of the digestive system, and metabolism. Investigations have clarified further the role of colostrum in immunity and nutrition of the young calf. Several sources of nutrients have been tested for their suitability in formulation of acceptable milk replacers and calf starters. Once-a-day feeding of milk, colostrum, or milk replacer and early weaning are practical management procedures. Labor and cost efficient methods of feeding and caring for young calves have developed. Extensive work on rearing rates and methods of rearing was published during these 25 yr. Successful schemes have evolved for feeding heifers to freshen at an optimal age and to occupy a respectful position in the milking line. Developments in housing have been phenomenal – from the calf hutch to environmentally controlled nurseries for calves. Heifer housing has ranged from relatively simple, but labor-efficient housing, to complete confinement systems. Herd health programs have developed to minimize many disease problems that can be particularly disastrous in large herds. Contract rearing of herd replacements has become a more frequently chosen option in this period. Budgets for rearing calves from birth to freshening have appeared in recommendations for raising heifers.