Kairomone-like activity of bile and bile components: A step towards revealing the chemical nature of fish kairomone

Despite the efforts of a number of research groups worldwide, we still have a poor understanding of the chemical nature of the fish kairomones which induce defensive morphology, life history and behavior in their planktonic prey. Bile excreted by foraging fish play a crucial role in their signaling systems. Using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), we revealed the presence of primary and secondary bile acids and bile salts in fish-conditioned water, similar as in carp bile. Upon exposure to either fish bile or commercially acquired bile salts, Daphnia demonstrated similar changes in life history and behavior as when exposed to fish kairomones. The synergic effect of the injured Daphnia alarm substance with fish bile on Daphnia life history is similar to the adaptive effect of the same alarm substance combined with fish kairomones. This strongly supports the view that fish bile or selected bile acids/salts may be responsible for the biological activity of kairomones.