Modulation of Determinant Factors to Improve Therapeutic Combinations with Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICPi) have shown their superiority over conventional therapies to treat some cancers. ICPi are effective against immunogenic tumors. However, patients with tumors poorly infiltrated with immune cells do not respond to ICPi. Combining ICPi with other anticancer therapies such as chemotherapy, radiation, or vaccines, which can stimulate the immune system and recruit antitumor T cells into the tumor bed, may be a relevant strategy to increase the proportion of responding patients. Such an approach still raises the following questions: What are the immunological features modulated by immunogenic therapies that can be critical to ensure not only immediate but also long-lasting tumor protection? How must the combined treatments be administered to the patients to harness their full potential while limiting adverse immunological events? Here, we address these points by reviewing how immunogenic anticancer therapies can provide novel therapeutic opportunities upon combination with ICPi. We discuss their ability to create a permissive tumor microenvironment through the generation of inflamed tumors and stimulation of memory T cells such as resident (T(RM)) and stem-cell like (T(SCM)) cells. We eventually underscore the importance of sequence, dose, and duration of the combined anticancer therapies to design optimal and successful cancer immunotherapy strategies.