Effects of Humic Acids on the Ecotoxicity of Fe(3)O(4) Nanoparticles and Fe-Ions: Impact of Oxidation and Aging

The magnetite nanoparticles (MNPs) are increasingly produced and studied for various environmental applications, yet the information on their ecotoxicity is scarce. We evaluated the ecotoxicity of MNPs (~7 nm) before and after the addition of humic acids (HAs). White mustard Sinapis alba and unicellular ciliates Paramecium caudatum were used as test species. The MNPs were modified by HAs and oxidized/aged under mild and harsh conditions. Bare MNPs proved not toxic to plants (96 h EC(50) > 3300 mg/L) but the addition of HAs and mild oxidation increased their inhibitory effect, especially after harsh oxidation (96 h EC(50) = 330 mg/L). Nevertheless, all these formulations could be ranked as ‘not harmful’ to S. alba (i.e., 96 h EC(50) > 100 mg/L). The same tendency was observed for ciliates, but the respective EC(50) values ranged from ‘harmful’ (24 h EC(50) = 10–100 mg/L) to ‘very toxic’ (24 h EC(50) < 1 mg/L). The ecotoxicity of Fe-ions with and without the addition of HAs was evaluated in parallel: Fe (II) and Fe (III) ions were toxic to S. alba (96 h EC(50) = 35 and 60 mg/L, respectively) and even more toxic to ciliates (24 h EC(50) = 1 and 3 mg/L, respectively). Addition of the HAs to Fe-ions yielded the respective complexes not harmful to plants (96h EC(50) > 100 mg/L) but toxic to ciliates (24 h EC(50) = 10–100 mg/L). These findings will be helpful for the understanding of the environmental fate and toxicity of iron-based NPs.