Graphene-modified CePO4 nanorods effectively treat breast cancer-induced bone metastases and regulate macrophage polarization to improve osteo-inductive ability

BACKGROUND: Breast cancer bone metastasis has become one of the most common complications; however, it may cause cancer recurrence and bone nonunion, as well as local bone defects. METHODS: Herein, In vitro, we verified the effect of bioscaffold materials on cell proliferation and apoptosis through a CCK8 trial, staining of live/dead cells, and flow cytometry. We used immunofluorescence technology and flow cytometry to verify whether bioscaffold materials regulate macrophage polarization, and we used ALP staining, alizarin red staining and PCR to verify whether bioscaffold material promotes bone regeneration. In vivo, we once again studied the effect of bioscaffold materials on tumors by measuring tumor volume in mice, Tunel staining, and caspase-3 immunofluorescence. We also constructed a mouse skull ultimate defect model to verify the effect on bone regeneration. RESULTS: Graphene oxide (GO) nanoparticles, hydrated CePO(4) nanorods and bioactive chitosan (CS) are combined to form a bioactive multifunctional CePO(4)/CS/GO scaffold, with characteristics such as photothermal therapy to kill tumors, macrophage polarization to promote blood vessel formation, and induction of bone formation. CePO(4)/CS/GO scaffold activates the caspase-3 proteasein local tumor cells, thereby lysing the DNA between nucleosomes and causing apoptosis. On the one hand, the as-released Ce(3+) ions promote M2 polarization of macrophages, which secretes vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and Arginase-1 (Arg-1), which promotes angiogenesis. On the other hand, the as-released Ce(3+) ions also activated the BMP-2/Smad signaling pathway which facilitated bone tissue regeneration. CONCLUSION: The multifunctional CePO(4)/CS/GO scaffolds may become a promising platform for therapy of breast cancer bone metastases. [Image: see text]