Simultaneous circulation of two West Nile virus lineage 2 clades and Bagaza virus in the Zambezi region, Namibia

Flaviviruses include a great diversity of mosquito-borne arboviruses with epidemic potential and high global disease burden. Several flaviviruses are circulating in southern Africa affecting humans and livestock, among them West Nile virus (WNV) and Wesselsbron virus. Despite their high relevance, no arbovirus surveillance study has been conducted for more than 35 years in Namibia. In this study we assessed the diversity of flaviviruses circulating in mosquitoes in the densely populated, semi-tropical Zambezi region of north-eastern Namibia. In total, 10,206 mosquitoes were sampled in Bwabwata and Mudumu national parks and Mashi and Wuparo conservancies and screened for flavivirus infections. A high infection rate with insect-specific flaviviruses was found with 241 strains of two previously known and seven putative novel insect-specific flaviviruses. In addition, we identified ten strains of WNV in the main vector Cx. univittatus sampled in the Mashi conservancy. Surprisingly, the strains fell into two different clades of lineage 2, 2b and 2d. Further, three strains of Bagaza Virus (BAGV) were found in Cx. univittatus mosquitoes originating from Mudumu national park. Assessment of BAGV growth in different cell lines showed high replication rates in mosquito and duck cells and about 100,000fold lower replication in human, primate and rodent cells. We demonstrate a wide genetic diversity of flaviviruses is circulating in mosquitoes in the Zambezi region. Importantly, WNV and BAGV can cause outbreaks including severe disease and mortality in humans and birds, respectively. Future studies should focus on WNV and BAGV geographic distribution, as well as on their potential health impacts in and the associated social and economic implications for southern Africa.