Spatial variability of saturated hydraulic conductivity and its links with other soil properties at the regional scale

Saturated hydraulic conductivity (K) is a key property for evaluating soil water movement and quality. Most studies on spatial variability of K have been performed soil at a field or smaller scale. Therefore, the aim of this work was to assess (quantify) the spatial distribution of K at the larger regional scale in south-eastern Poland and its relationship with other soil properties, including intrinsic sand, silt, and clay contents, relatively stable organic carbon, cation exchange capacity (CEC) and temporally variable water content (WC), total porosity (FI), and dry bulk density (BD) in the surface layer (0–20 cm). The spatial relationships were assessed using a semivariogram and a cross-semivariogram. The studied region (140 km(2)) with predominantly permeable sandy soils with low fertility and productivity is located in the south-eastern part of Poland (Podlasie region). The mean sand and organic carbon contents are 74 and 0.86 and their ranges (in %) are 45–95 and 0.002–3.75, respectively. The number of individual samples varied from 216 to 228 (for K, WC, BD, FI) to 691 for the other soil properties. The best fitting models were adjusted to the empirical semivariogram (exponential) and the cross-semivariogram (exponential, Gaussian, or linear) used to draw maps with kriging. The results showed that, among the soil properties studied, K was most variable (coefficient of variation 77.3%) and significantly (p < 0.05) positively correlated with total porosity (r = 0.300) and negatively correlated with soil bulk density (r = – 0.283). The normal or close to the normal distribution was obtained by natural logarithmic and root square transformations. The mean K was 2.597 m day(−1) and ranged from 0.01 up to 11.54 m day(−1). The spatial autocorrelation (range) of K in the single (direct) semivariograms was 0.081° (8.1 km), while it favourably increased up to 0.149°–0.81° (14.9–81 km) in the cross-semivariograms using the OC contents, textural fractions, and CEC as auxiliary variables. The generated spatial maps allowed outlining two sub-areas with predominantly high K above 3.0 m day(−1) in the northern sandier (sand content > 74%) and less silty (silt content < 22%) part and, with lower K in the southern part of the study region. Generally, the spatial distribution of the K values in the study region depended on the share of individual intrinsic textural fractions. On the other hand, the ranges of the spatial relationship between K and the intrinsic and relatively stable soil properties were much larger (from ~ 15 to 81 km) than between K and the temporally variable soil properties (0.3–0.9 km). This knowledge is supportive for making decisions related to land management aimed at alteration of hydraulic conductivity to improve soil water resources and crop productivity and reduce chemical leaching.