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Diffuse Axonal Injury: Clinical Prognostic Factors, Molecular Experimental Models and the Impact of the Trauma Related Oxidative Stress. An Extensive Review Concerning Milestones and Advances
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a condition burdened by an extremely high rate of morbidity and mortality and can result in an overall disability rate as high as 50% in affected individuals. Therefore, the importance of identifying clinical prognostic factors for diffuse axonal injury (DAI) in (TBI)...
Autores principales: | , , , , , |
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Formato: | Online Artículo Texto |
Lenguaje: | English |
Publicado: |
MDPI
2021
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Materias: | |
Acceso en línea: | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8509530/ https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34639206 http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms221910865 |
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author | Palmieri, Mauro Frati, Alessandro Santoro, Antonio Frati, Paola Fineschi, Vittorio Pesce, Alessandro |
author_facet | Palmieri, Mauro Frati, Alessandro Santoro, Antonio Frati, Paola Fineschi, Vittorio Pesce, Alessandro |
author_sort | Palmieri, Mauro |
collection | PubMed |
description | Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a condition burdened by an extremely high rate of morbidity and mortality and can result in an overall disability rate as high as 50% in affected individuals. Therefore, the importance of identifying clinical prognostic factors for diffuse axonal injury (DAI) in (TBI) is commonly recognized as critical. The aim of the present review paper is to evaluate the most recent contributions from the relevant literature in order to understand how each single prognostic factor determinates the severity of the clinical syndrome associated with DAI. The main clinical factors with an important impact on prognosis in case of DAI are glycemia, early GCS, the peripheral oxygen saturation, blood pressure, and time to recover consciousness. In addition, the severity of the lesion, classified on the ground of the cerebral anatomical structures involved after the trauma, has a strong correlation with survival after DAI. In conclusion, modern findings concerning the role of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and oxidative stress in DAI suggest that biomarkers such as GFAP, pNF-H, NF-L, microtubule associated protein tau, Aβ42, S-100β, NSE, AQP4, Drp-1, and NCX represent a possible critical target for future pharmaceutical treatments to prevent the damages caused by DAI. |
format | Online Article Text |
id | pubmed-8509530 |
institution | National Center for Biotechnology Information |
language | English |
publishDate | 2021 |
publisher | MDPI |
record_format | MEDLINE/PubMed |
spelling | pubmed-85095302021-10-13 Diffuse Axonal Injury: Clinical Prognostic Factors, Molecular Experimental Models and the Impact of the Trauma Related Oxidative Stress. An Extensive Review Concerning Milestones and Advances Palmieri, Mauro Frati, Alessandro Santoro, Antonio Frati, Paola Fineschi, Vittorio Pesce, Alessandro Int J Mol Sci Review Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a condition burdened by an extremely high rate of morbidity and mortality and can result in an overall disability rate as high as 50% in affected individuals. Therefore, the importance of identifying clinical prognostic factors for diffuse axonal injury (DAI) in (TBI) is commonly recognized as critical. The aim of the present review paper is to evaluate the most recent contributions from the relevant literature in order to understand how each single prognostic factor determinates the severity of the clinical syndrome associated with DAI. The main clinical factors with an important impact on prognosis in case of DAI are glycemia, early GCS, the peripheral oxygen saturation, blood pressure, and time to recover consciousness. In addition, the severity of the lesion, classified on the ground of the cerebral anatomical structures involved after the trauma, has a strong correlation with survival after DAI. In conclusion, modern findings concerning the role of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and oxidative stress in DAI suggest that biomarkers such as GFAP, pNF-H, NF-L, microtubule associated protein tau, Aβ42, S-100β, NSE, AQP4, Drp-1, and NCX represent a possible critical target for future pharmaceutical treatments to prevent the damages caused by DAI. MDPI 2021-10-08 /pmc/articles/PMC8509530/ /pubmed/34639206 http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms221910865 Text en © 2021 by the authors. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). |
spellingShingle | Review Palmieri, Mauro Frati, Alessandro Santoro, Antonio Frati, Paola Fineschi, Vittorio Pesce, Alessandro Diffuse Axonal Injury: Clinical Prognostic Factors, Molecular Experimental Models and the Impact of the Trauma Related Oxidative Stress. An Extensive Review Concerning Milestones and Advances |
title | Diffuse Axonal Injury: Clinical Prognostic Factors, Molecular Experimental Models and the Impact of the Trauma Related Oxidative Stress. An Extensive Review Concerning Milestones and Advances |
title_full | Diffuse Axonal Injury: Clinical Prognostic Factors, Molecular Experimental Models and the Impact of the Trauma Related Oxidative Stress. An Extensive Review Concerning Milestones and Advances |
title_fullStr | Diffuse Axonal Injury: Clinical Prognostic Factors, Molecular Experimental Models and the Impact of the Trauma Related Oxidative Stress. An Extensive Review Concerning Milestones and Advances |
title_full_unstemmed | Diffuse Axonal Injury: Clinical Prognostic Factors, Molecular Experimental Models and the Impact of the Trauma Related Oxidative Stress. An Extensive Review Concerning Milestones and Advances |
title_short | Diffuse Axonal Injury: Clinical Prognostic Factors, Molecular Experimental Models and the Impact of the Trauma Related Oxidative Stress. An Extensive Review Concerning Milestones and Advances |
title_sort | diffuse axonal injury: clinical prognostic factors, molecular experimental models and the impact of the trauma related oxidative stress. an extensive review concerning milestones and advances |
topic | Review |
url | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8509530/ https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34639206 http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms221910865 |
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