Morphological differences in the calcaneus among extant great apes investigated by three-dimensional geometric morphometrics

Investigating the morphological differences of the calcaneus in humans and great apes is crucial for reconstructing locomotor repertories of fossil hominins. However, morphological variations in the calcaneus of the great apes (chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans) have not been sufficiently studied. This study aims to clarify variations in calcaneal morphology among great apes based on three-dimensional geometric morphometrics. A total of 556 landmarks and semilandmarks were placed on the calcaneal surface to calculate the principal components of shape variations among specimens. Clear interspecific differences in calcaneal morphology were extracted, corresponding to the degree of arboreality of the three species. The most arboreal orangutans possessed comparatively more slender calcaneal tuberosity and deeper pivot region of the cuboid articular surface than chimpanzees and gorillas. However, the most terrestrial gorillas exhibited longer lever arm of the triceps surae muscle, larger peroneal trochlea, more concave plantar surface, more inverted calcaneal tuberosity, more everted cuboid articular surface, and more prominent plantar process than the orangutans and chimpanzees. These interspecific differences possibly reflect the functional adaptation of the calcaneus to locomotor behavior in great apes. Such information might be useful for inferring foot functions and reconstructing the locomotion of fossil hominoids and hominids.