Immunological Profiling of COVID-19 Patients with Pulmonary Sequelae

Cellular immunity may be involved in organ damage and rehabilitation in patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). We aimed to delineate immunological features of COVID-19 patients with pulmonary sequelae (PS) 1 year after discharge. Fifty COVID-19 survivors were recruited and classified according to radiological characteristics, including 24 patients with PS and 26 patients without PS. Phenotypic and functional characteristics of immune cells were evaluated by multiparametric flow cytometry. Patients with PS had an increased proportion of natural killer (NK) cells and a lower percentage of B cells than patients without PS. Phenotypic and functional features of T cells in patients with PS were predominated by the accumulation of CD4-positive (CD4(+)) T cells secreting interleukin 17A (IL-17A), short-lived effector-like CD8(+) T cells (CD27-negative [CD27(−)] CD62L(−)), and senescent T cells with excessive secretion of granzyme B/perforin/interferon gamma (IFN-γ). NK cells were characterized by the excessive secretion of granzyme B and perforin and the downregulation of NKP30 and NKP46; highly activated NKT and γδ T cells exhibited NKP30 and TIM-3 upregulation and NKB1 downregulation in patients with PS. However, immunosuppressive cells were comparable between the two groups. The interrelationship of immune cells in COVID-19 was intrinsically identified, whereby T cells secreting IL-2, IL-4, and IL-17A were enriched among CD28(+) and CD57(−) cells and cells secreting perforin/granzyme B/IFN-γ/tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α)-expressed markers of terminal differentiation. CD57(+) NK cells, CD4(+)Perforin(+) T cells, and CD8(+) CD27(+) CD62L(+) T cells were identified as the independent predictors for residual lesions. Overall, our findings unveil the profound imbalance of immune landscape that may correlate with organ damage and rehabilitation in COVID-19.