Stable-Isotope-Informed, Genome-Resolved Metagenomics Uncovers Potential Cross-Kingdom Interactions in Rhizosphere Soil

The functioning, health, and productivity of soil are intimately tied to a complex network of interactions, particularly in plant root-associated rhizosphere soil. We conducted a stable-isotope-informed, genome-resolved metagenomic study to trace carbon from Avena fatua grown in a (13)CO(2) atmosphere into soil. We collected paired rhizosphere and nonrhizosphere soil at 6 and 9 weeks of plant growth and extracted DNA that was then separated by density using ultracentrifugation. Thirty-two fractions from each of five samples were grouped by density, sequenced, assembled, and binned to generate 55 unique bacterial genomes that were ≥70% complete. We also identified complete 18S rRNA sequences of several (13)C-enriched microeukaryotic bacterivores and fungi. We generated 10 circularized bacteriophage (phage) genomes, some of which were the most labeled entities in the rhizosphere, suggesting that phage may be important agents of turnover of plant-derived C in soil. CRISPR locus targeting connected one of these phage to a Burkholderiales host predicted to be a plant pathogen. Another highly labeled phage is predicted to replicate in a Catenulispora sp., a possible plant growth-promoting bacterium. We searched the genome bins for traits known to be used in interactions involving bacteria, microeukaryotes, and plant roots and found DNA from heavily (13)C-labeled bacterial genes thought to be involved in modulating plant signaling hormones, plant pathogenicity, and defense against microeukaryote grazing. Stable-isotope-informed, genome-resolved metagenomics indicated that phage can be important agents of turnover of plant-derived carbon in soil. IMPORTANCE Plants grow in intimate association with soil microbial communities; these microbes can facilitate the availability of essential resources to plants. Thus, plant productivity commonly depends on interactions with rhizosphere bacteria, viruses, and eukaryotes. Our work is significant because we identified the organisms that took up plant-derived organic C in rhizosphere soil and determined that many of the active bacteria are plant pathogens or can impact plant growth via hormone modulation. Further, by showing that bacteriophage accumulate CO(2)-derived carbon, we demonstrated their vital roles in redistribution of plant-derived C into the soil environment through bacterial cell lysis. The use of stable-isotope probing (SIP) to identify consumption (or lack thereof) of root-derived C by key microbial community members within highly complex microbial communities opens the way for assessing manipulations of bacteria and phage with potentially beneficial and detrimental traits, ultimately providing a path to improved plant health and soil carbon storage.