Nationwide assessment of energy costs and policies to limit airborne infection risks in U.S. schools

Practices such as improved ventilation and air filtration are being considered by schools to reduce the transmission of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) that causes the pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Improved ventilation may significantly increase the energy cost of heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC), exacerbating financial challenges schools face amidst the worst pandemic in decades. This study evaluated HVAC energy costs for reducing COVID-19 airborne infection risks in 111,485 public and private schools in the U.S. to support decision-makings. The average annual HVAC energy cost to maintain the infection risk below 1% for the schools in the U.S. is estimated at $20.1 per square meter or $308.4 per capita with improved ventilation and air filtration, where the private schools have higher costs than the public schools on average. The cost could be reduced by adopting partial online learning. It was also found that additional cost to control infection risk with increased ventilation and air filtration is significantly lower for PK-5 schools than that for middle and high schools, indicating the possibility of remaining in-person instructions for PK-5 schools with necessary governmental assistance. Analyses of school HVAC energy costs to reduce airborne infection risks under different intervention scenarios provide important operational guidelines, financial implications, and policy insights for schools, community stakeholders, and policymakers to keep schools safe during the ongoing pandemic and improve preparedness for epidemics projected in the future.