Contribution of analog signaling to neurotransmitter interactions and behavior: Role of transporter‐mediated nonquantal dopamine release

Neuronal networks cause changes in behaviorally important information processing through the vesicular release of neurotransmitters governed by the rate and timing of action potentials (APs). Herein, we provide evidence that dopamine (DA), nonquantally released from the cytoplasm, may exert similar effects in vivo. In mouse slice preparations, (+/−)‐3,4‐methylenedioxy‐methamphetamine (MDMA, or ecstasy) and β‐phenylethylamine (β‐PEA)‐induced DA release in the striatum and nucleus accumbens (NAc), two regions of the brain involved in reward‐driven and social behavior and inhibited the axonal stimulation‐induced release of tritiated acetylcholine ([(3)H]ACh) in the striatum. The DA transporter (DAT) inhibitor (GBR‐12909) prevented MDMA and β‐PEA from causing DA release. GBR‐12909 could also restore some of the stimulated acetylcholine release reduced by MDMA or β‐PEA in the striatum confirming the fundamental role of DAT. In addition, hypothermia could prevent the β‐PEA‐induced release in the striatum and in the NAc. Sulpiride, a D2 receptor antagonist, also prevented the inhibitory effects of MDMA or β‐PEA on stimulated ACh release, suggesting they act indirectly via binding of DA. Reflecting the neurochemical interactions in brain slices at higher system level, MDMA altered the social behavior of rats by preferentially enhancing passive social behavior. Similar to the in vitro effects, GBR‐12909 treatment reversed specific elements of the MDMA‐induced changes in behavior, such as passive social behavior, while left others including social play unchanged. The changes in behavior by the high level of extracellular DA–– a significant amount originating from cytoplasmic release––suggest that in addition to digital computation through synapses, the brain also uses analog communication, such as DA signaling, to mediate some elements of complex behaviors, but in a much longer time scale.