Development and Validation of a Sub-National, Satellite-Based Land-Use Regression Model for Annual Nitrogen Dioxide Concentrations in North-Western China

Existing national- or continental-scale models of nitrogen dioxide (NO(2)) exposure have a limited capacity to capture subnational spatial variability in sparsely-populated parts of the world where NO(2) sources may vary. To test and validate our approach, we developed a land-use regression (LUR) model for NO(2) for Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region (NHAR) and surrounding areas, a small rural province in north-western China. Using hourly NO(2) measurements from 105 continuous monitoring sites in 2019, a supervised, forward addition, linear regression approach was adopted to develop the model, assessing 270 potential predictor variables, including tropospheric NO(2), optically measured by the Aura satellite. The final model was cross-validated (5-fold cross validation), and its historical performance (back to 2014) assessed using 41 independent monitoring sites not used for model development. The final model captured 63% of annual NO(2) in NHAR (RMSE: 6 ppb (21% of the mean of all monitoring sites)) and contiguous parts of Inner Mongolia, Gansu, and Shaanxi Provinces. Cross-validation and independent evaluation against historical data yielded adjusted R(2) values that were 1% and 10% lower than the model development values, respectively, with comparable RMSE. The findings suggest that a parsimonious, satellite-based LUR model is robust and can be used to capture spatial contrasts in annual NO(2) in the relatively sparsely-populated areas in NHAR and neighbouring provinces.