Self-Powered Detection of Glucose by Enzymatic Glucose/Oxygen Fuel Cells on Printed Circuit Boards

[Image: see text] Monitoring glucose levels in physiological fluids can help prevent severe complications associated with hypo- and hyper-glycemic events. Current glucose-monitoring systems require a three-electrode setup and a power source to function, which can hamper the system miniaturization to the patient discomfort. Enzymatic fuel cells (EFCs) offer the opportunity to develop self-powered and minimally invasive glucose sensors by eliminating the need for an external power source. Nevertheless, practical applications demand for cost-effective and mass-manufacturable EFCs compatible with integration strategies. In this study, we explore for the first time the use of gold electrodes on a printed circuit board (PCB) for the development of an EFC and demonstrate its application in saliva. To increase the specific surface area, the PCB gold-plated electrodes were modified with porous gold films. At the anode, glucose oxidase is immobilized with an osmium redox polymer that serves as an electron-transfer mediator. At the cathode, bilirubin oxidase is adsorbed onto the porous gold surface with a blocking agent that prevents parasitic reactions while maintaining the enzyme catalytic activity. The resulting EFC showed a linear response to glucose in phosphate buffer within the range 50 μM to 1 mM, with a sensitivity of 14.13 μA cm(–2) mM(–1). The sensor was further characterized in saliva, showing the linear range of detection of 0.75 to 2 mM, which is within the physiological range, and sensitivity of 21.5 μA cm(–2) mM(–1). Overall, this work demonstrates that PCBs are suitable platforms for EFCs, paving the way for the development of fully integrated systems in a seamless and miniaturized device.