Microfluidic-Based Oxygen (O(2)) Sensors for On-Chip Monitoring of Cell, Tissue and Organ Metabolism

Oxygen (O(2)) quantification is essential for assessing cell metabolism, and its consumption in cell culture is an important indicator of cell viability. Recent advances in microfluidics have made O(2) sensing a crucial feature for organ-on-chip (OOC) devices for various biomedical applications. OOC O(2) sensors can be categorized, based on their transducer type, into two main groups, optical and electrochemical. In this review, we provide an overview of on-chip O(2) sensors integrated with the OOC devices and evaluate their advantages and disadvantages. Recent innovations in optical O(2) sensors integrated with OOCs are discussed in four main categories: (i) basic luminescence-based sensors; (ii) microparticle-based sensors; (iii) nano-enabled sensors; and (iv) commercial probes and portable devices. Furthermore, we discuss recent advancements in electrochemical sensors in five main categories: (i) novel configurations in Clark-type sensors; (ii) novel materials (e.g., polymers, O(2) scavenging and passivation materials); (iii) nano-enabled electrochemical sensors; (iv) novel designs and fabrication techniques; and (v) commercial and portable electrochemical readouts. Together, this review provides a comprehensive overview of the current advances in the design, fabrication and application of optical and electrochemical O(2) sensors.