Education level and misuse of antibiotics in the general population: a systematic review and dose–response meta-analysis

BACKGROUND: Numerous studies evaluated the association of education level with misuse of antibiotics by the general population, yet divergent findings were reported. Therefore, a meta-analysis was conducted to summarize this association. METHODS: A categorical and continuous dose–response meta-analysis of the association of education level with antibiotic misuse was undertaken. Summary odds ratios (ORs) and their 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were estimated using random-effect model. RESULTS: The meta-analysis included 85 studies from 42 countries of different socioeconomic status. Compared to low education (≤ 9 years), medium education (> 9–12 years) is associated with 20% lower odds of antibiotic misuse in high-income countries (OR = 0.80; 95% CI 0.66, 0.97), while high education (> 12 years) is associated with 14% lower odds of any aspect of antibiotic misuse (OR = 0.86; 95% CI 0.72, 1.03). The association is more pronounced in Middle East (OR = 0.64; 95% CI 0.42, 1.00) and countries of lower-middle economies (OR = 0.67, 95% CI 0.41, 1.11). Inversely, in Europe, high education is associated with 25% higher odds of antibiotic misuse (OR = 1.25, 95% CI 1.00, 1.58). Each additional year of education was associated with 4% lower odds of any aspect of antibiotic misuse in lower-middle economies (OR = 0.96; 95% CI 0.92, 1.00) and in Middle East (OR = 0.96; 95% CI 0.93, 1.00). Conversely, it was associated with 3% higher odds of antibiotic storage, a specific type of misuse (OR = 1.03, 95% CI 1.01, 1.06). CONCLUSION: Individuals misuse antibiotics irrespective of their education level. Intervention programs to enhance the proper use of antibiotics should target all communities independent of their education level. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13756-022-01063-5.