Chalcogen Bonding in the Molecular Dimers of WCh(2) (Ch = S, Se, Te): On the Basic Understanding of the Local Interfacial and Interlayer Bonding Environment in 2D Layered Tungsten Dichalcogenides

Layered two-dimensional transition metal dichalcogenides and their heterostructures are of current interest, owing to the diversity of their applications in many areas of materials nanoscience and technologies. With this in mind, we have examined the three molecular dimers of the tungsten dichalcogenide series, (WCh(2))(2) (Ch = S, Se, Te), using density functional theory to provide insight into which interactions, and their specific characteristics, are responsible for the interfacial/interlayer region in the room temperature 2H phase of WCh(2) crystals. Our calculations at various levels of theory suggested that the Te···Te chalcogen bonding in (WTe(2))(2) is weak, whereas the Se···Se and S···S bonding interactions in (WSe(2))(2) and (WS(2))(2), respectively, are of the van der Waals type. The presence and character of Ch···Ch chalcogen bonding interactions in the dimers of (WCh(2))(2) are examined with a number of theoretical approaches and discussed, including charge-density-based approaches, such as the quantum theory of atoms in molecules, interaction region indicator, independent gradient model, and reduced density gradient non-covalent index approaches. The charge-density-based topological features are shown to be concordant with the results that originate from the extrema of potential on the electrostatic surfaces of WCh(2) monomers. A natural bond orbital analysis has enabled us to suggest a number of weak hyperconjugative charge transfer interactions between the interacting monomers that are responsible for the geometry of the (WCh(2))(2) dimers at equilibrium. In addition to other features, we demonstrate that there is no so-called van der Waals gap between the monolayers in two-dimensional layered transition metal tungsten dichalcogenides, which are gapless, and that the (WCh(2))(2) dimers may be prototypes for a basic understanding of the physical chemistry of the chemical bonding environments associated with the local interfacial/interlayer regions in layered 2H-WCh(2) nanoscale systems.