Comparative Evaluation of Graphene Nanostructures in GERS Platforms for Pesticide Detection

[Image: see text] Graphene-enhanced Raman scattering (GERS) produces enhancement of the Raman signal, which is based on chemical rather than electromagnetic mechanism such as in the surface-enhanced Raman scattering. Graphene oxide, amino- and guanidine-functionalized graphene oxide, exfoliated graphene, and commercial graphene nanoplatelets have been used to investigate the GERS response with the change of graphene properties. Different graphene nanostructures have been embedded into organic–inorganic microporous films to build a platform for the fast and sensitive detection of pesticides in water. The graphene nanostructures vary in the number of layers, lateral size, degree of oxidation, and surface functionalization. The GERS performances of the graphene nanostructures cast on silicon substrates and embedded in the nanocomposite films have been comparatively evaluated. After casting a few droplets of the pesticide aqueous solution on the graphene nanostructures, the Raman band enhancements of the analytes have been measured. In the nanocomposite films, the characteristic Raman bands originating from pesticides such as paraoxon, parathion, and glyphosate could be traced at concentrations below 10(–7), 10(–5), and 10(–4) M, respectively. The results show that the surface functionalization reduces the GERS effect because it increases the ratio between the sp(3) carbon and sp(2) carbon. On the other hand, the comparison among different types of graphenes shows that the monolayers are more efficient than the few-layer nanostructures in enhancing the Raman signal.