Prenatal Fine Particulate Matter, Maternal Micronutrient Antioxidant Intake, and Early Childhood Repeated Wheeze: Effect Modification by Race/Ethnicity and Sex

Fine particulate matter (PM(2.5)) potentiates in utero oxidative stress influencing fetal development while antioxidants have potential protective effects. We examined associations among prenatal PM(2.5), maternal antioxidant intake, and childhood wheeze in an urban pregnancy cohort (n = 530). Daily PM(2.5) exposure over gestation was estimated using a satellite-based spatiotemporally resolved model. Mothers completed the modified Block98 food frequency questionnaire. Average energy-adjusted percentile intake of β-carotene, vitamins (A, C, E), and trace minerals (zinc, magnesium, selenium) constituted an antioxidant index (AI). Maternal-reported child wheeze was ascertained up to 4.1 ± 2.8 years. Bayesian distributed lag interaction models (BDLIMs) were used to examine time-varying associations between prenatal PM(2.5) and repeated wheeze (≥2 episodes) and effect modification by AI, race/ethnicity, and child sex. Covariates included maternal age, education, asthma, and temperature. Women were 39% Black and 33% Hispanic, 36% with ≤high school education; 21% of children had repeated wheeze. Higher AI was associated with decreased wheeze in Blacks (OR = 0.37 (0.19–0.73), per IQR increase). BDLIMs identified a sensitive window for PM(2.5) effects on wheeze among boys born to Black mothers with low AI (at 33–40 weeks gestation; OR = 1.74 (1.19–2.54), per µg/m(3) increase in PM(2.5)). Relationships among prenatal PM(2.5), antioxidant intake, and child wheeze were modified by race/ethnicity and sex.