Nanoforms of essential metals: from hormetic phytoeffects to agricultural potential

Vital plant functions require at least six metals (copper, iron, molybdenum, manganese, zinc, and nickel), which function as enzyme cofactors or inducers. In recent decades, rapidly evolving nanotechnology has created nanoforms of essential metals and their compounds (e.g. nZnO, nFe(2)O(3)) with a number of favourable properties over the bulk materials. The effects of nanometals on plants are concentration-dependent (hormesis) but also depend on the properties of the nanometals, the plant species, and the treatment conditions. Here, we review studies examining plant responses to essential nanometal treatments using a (multi)omics approach and emphasize the importance of gaining a holistic view of the diverse effects. Furthermore, we discuss the beneficial effects of essential nanometals on plants, which provide the basis for their application in crop production as, for example, nanopriming or nanostimulator agents, or nanofertilizers. As lower environmental impact and increased yield can be achieved by the application of essential nanometals, they support sustainable agriculture. Recent studies have actively examined the utilization of green-synthesized metal nanoparticles, which perfectly fit into the environmentally friendly trend of future agriculture. Further knowledge is required before essential nanometals can be safely applied in agriculture, but it is a promising direction that is timely to investigate.