A critical appraisal of the status and hydrogeochemical characteristics of freshwater springs in Kashmir Valley

With growing water scarcity, jeopardized by climate change, springs are likely to perform a vital role in meeting the domestic water demand in future. This paper examines the water quality status of Kashmir valley springs in relation to their geographical location, regional hydrogeological conditions, anthropogenic activities and climate change. We analyzed data for 258 springs from the whole Kashmir valley using water quality index (WQI) and geographic information system techniques. WQI ranged from 23 (excellent water) to 537 (water unsuitable for drinking). The WQI indicated that 39.5% of the springs had excellent waters, 47.7% had good water, 5% had poor water, 1.6% had very-poor water, and 6.2% of the springs had water unfit for drinking purposes. The Piper diagram identified Ca–Mg–HCO(3,) Ca–Mg–SO(4,) and Na–HCO(3) as the most predominant hydro-chemical facies, whereas Gibbs diagram revealed that the water of springs in the study region is mainly controlled by rock weathering dominance. The results of the study offer inputs about the water quality to be used by the concerned departments and agencies at a bigger scale for drinking purposes. Our findings therefore suggest that springs which are in thousands in Kashmir landscape have the potential to offer viable solution to the rising drinking water demand and therefore merit an attention for their protection and management.