Adult stem cell sources for skeletal and smooth muscle tissue engineering

INTRODUCTION: Tissue engineering is an innovative field with enormous developments in recent years. These advances are not only in the understanding of how stem cells can be isolated, cultured and manipulated but also in their potential for clinical applications. Thus, tissue engineering when applied to skeletal and smooth muscle cells is an area that bears high benefit for patients with muscular diseases or damage. Most of the recent research has been focused on use of adult stem cells. These cells have the ability to rejuvenate and repair damaged tissues and can be derived from different organs and tissue sources. Recently there are several different types of adult stem cells, which have the potential to function as a cell source for tissue engineering of skeletal and smooth muscles. However, to build neo‐tissues there are several challenges which have to be addressed, such as the selection of the most suitable stem cell type, isolation techniques, gaining control over its differentiation and proliferation process. CONCLUSION: The usage of adult stem cells for muscle engineering applications is promising. Here, we summarize the status of research on the use of adult stem cells for cell transplantation in experimental animals and humans. In particular, the application of skeletal and smooth muscle engineering in pre-clinical and clinical trials will be discussed.