Prevalence and effect of Plasmodium spp. and hookworm co-infection on malaria parasite density and haemoglobin level: a meta-analysis

The dual effects of co-infection of Plasmodium spp. and hookworm on malaria remain under debate. This study investigated prevalence, prevalence odds ratio (POR) of co-infection and impact of co-infection on malaria parasite density and haemoglobin levels in comparison to Plasmodium mono-infection. The protocol for this systematic review and meta-analysis is registered at PROPERO under ID: CRD42020202156. Relevant literatures were obtained from PubMed, ISI Web of Science, and Scopus on 25 December 2020. Mean difference (MD) and confidence interval (CI) of malaria parasite density and haemoglobin were compared using a random effect model. Heterogeneity was assessed using Cochrane Q and I(2) statistics. Publication bias was determined by visualising funnel plot asymmetry. Of 1756 articles examined, 22,191 malaria cases across 37 studies included 6096 cases of co-infection of Plasmodium spp. and hookworm. The pooled prevalence was 20% (95% CI 15–26%, I(2) 99.6%, 37 studies) and was varied in terms of geographical region. Co-infection occurred by chance (OR 0.97, p 0.97, 95% CI 0.73–1.27, I(2) 95%, 30 studies). The mean malaria parasite density for co-infection (478 cases) was similar to Plasmodium mono-infection (920 cases) (p 0.24, MD 0.86, 95% CI − 0.58–2.29, I(2) 100%, 7 studies). The mean haemoglobin level for co-infection (90 cases) was similar to Plasmodium mono-infection (415 cases) (p 0.15, MD − 0.63, 95% CI − 1.49–0.23, I(2) 98%, 4 studies). Co-infection was common and occurred by chance but varied by geographic region. Further studies are required to investigate the mechanism of hookworm infection on malaria severity. Additionally, detection of hookworm infections among patients with malaria in endemic areas of both diseases is recommended to prevent severe malaria.