Design of ultrathin hybrid membranes with improved retention efficiency of molecular dyes

Ultrathin layers of 2,2,6,6-Tetramethyl-1-piperidinyloxy (TEMPO) Oxidized Cellulose Nanofibers (TOCNF) embedded with Graphene Oxide nanosheets (GOs) in different ratios were built, via the blade coating technique, on a polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF) substrate to obtain superior membranes for separating water pollutants from aqueous media. Cellulose nanofiber–graphene oxide hybrid materials have shown a great potential for water purification due to their active microporous structure with extended areas rich in negatively charged carboxyl functional groups capable of adsorbing positively charged contaminants efficiently. In contrast to the pristine free-standing TOCNF films, which are completely impermeable, the ultrathin (68 nm thick) hybrid coating with a 100 : 1 TOCNF : GO ratio showed a stable water permeability (816 ± 3.4 L m(−2) h(−1) bar(−1)) higher than that of common polymeric membranes, and a very efficient size selectivity during filtration of water contaminated by various types of dyes. The membranes had high retention efficiency (82–99%) for dyes with hydrated radii greater than ≈0.5 nm due to the favorable combination of electrostatic/hydrophobic interactions with the hybrid matrices and steric entrapment controlled by the pore size. This was confirmed by theoretical calculations that revealed both the structure and dynamic behavior of the dyes in the complex environment of the membranes.