Air Pollution, Socioeconomic Status, and Age-Specific Mortality Risk in the United States

IMPORTANCE: Prior studies on the association between fine particulate matter with diameters 2.5 μm or smaller (PM(2.5)) and probability of death have not applied multilevel analysis disaggregating data for US census tract, states, and counties, nor tested its interaction by socioeconomic status (SES). Such an approach could provide a more refined identification and targeting of populations exposed to increased risk from PM(2.5). OBJECTIVE: To assess the association between PM(2.5) and age-specific mortality risk (ASMR) using disaggregated data at the census tract level and evaluate such association according to census tract SES. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: This nationwide cross-sectional study used a linkage of 3 different data sets. ASMR for the period of 2010 to 2015 was obtained from the National Center for Health Statistic, SES data covering a period from 2006 to 2016 came from the American Community Survey, and mean PM(2.5) exposure levels from 2010 to 2015 were derived from well-validated atmospheric chemistry and machine learning models. Data were analyzed in April 2021. EXPOSURES: The main exploratory variable was mean census tract–level long-term exposure to PM(2.5) from 2010 to 2015. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES: The primary outcome was census tract–level ASMR. Multilevel models were used to quantify the geographic variation in ASMR at levels of census tract, county, and state. Additional analysis explored the interaction of SES in the association of ASMR with PM(2.5) exposure. RESULTS: Data from 67 148 census tracts nested in 3087 counties and 50 states were analyzed. The association between exposure to PM(2.5) and ASMR varied substantially across census tracts. The magnitude of such association also varied across age groups, being higher among adults and older adults. Census tracts accounted for most of the total geographic variation in mortality risk (range, 77.0%-94.2%). ASMR was higher in deciles with greater PM(2.5) concentration. For example, ASMR for age 75 to 84 years was 54.6 per 1000 population higher in the decile with the second-highest PM(2.5) concentration than in the decile with the lowest PM(2.5) concentration. The ASMR, PM(2.5) concentrations, and magnitude of the association between both were higher in the census tracts with the lowest SES. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: This cross-sectional study found that census tracts with lower SES presented higher PM(2.5) concentrations. ASMR and air pollution varied substantially across census tracts. There was an association between air pollution and ASMR across all age groups in the United States. These findings suggest that equitable public policies aimed at improving air quality are needed and important to increase life expectancy.