Xanthophylls in Human Milk and Maternal Diet: A Cross-sectional Analysis of Data from the Japanese Human Milk Study Cohort

BACKGROUND: Maternal diet and sociodemographic factors influence xanthophyll concentration and composition in human milk. However, the importance of dietary patterns regarding the intake of fruits, vegetables, and xanthophylls remains unclear. OBJECTIVE: The aim was to determine the composition of xanthophylls in the human milk of Japanese mothers and explore associations of xanthophylls with dietary and sociodemographic factors. METHODS: This cross-sectional study was conducted in the early phase of the Japanese Human Milk Study. Xanthophyll content was measured using liquid chromatography at 30–36 d postpartum. Maternal intake of foods, nutrients, and dietary supplements was estimated using a food-frequency questionnaire. Linear regression models were established using xanthophylls, maternal diet, and sociodemographic factors. RESULTS: Xanthophyll concentrations were measured in human milk from 118 mothers. The xanthophyll concentration varied among individuals. The median (IQR) concentrations of lutein, zeaxanthin, and β-cryptoxanthin were 65.6 ng/mL (51.6–103.4 ng/mL), 18.6 ng/mL (12.9–25.8 ng/mL), and 15.6 ng/mL (9.0–26.0 ng/mL), respectively. In multivariate models, the lutein concentration was associated independently with dietary green vegetables, exclusive breastfeeding, and education (r(2) = 0.153 for the model; β ± SE: 0.468 ± 0.198, 25.048 ± 10.222, and 13.460 ± 6.774; standardized β = 0.210, 0.217, and 0.175; P = 0.019, 0.016, and 0.049 for dietary green vegetables, exclusive breastfeeding, and education, respectively). For zeaxanthin, exclusive breastfeeding was the most appropriate predictor (r(2) = 0.085; β ± SE: 7.811 ± 3.300; standardized β = 0.218; P = 0.020). The highest predictive power for human milk β-cryptoxanthin was obtained with dietary β-cryptoxanthin (r(2) = 0.258; β ± SE: 0.089 ± 0.015; standardized β = 0.468; P < 0.001), attributed to maternal citrus intake. CONCLUSIONS: β-Cryptoxanthin in human milk was the xanthophyll most influenced by the maternal diet in Japanese women. The β-cryptoxanthin concentration in human milk was reflected by the maternal β-cryptoxanthin intake, mainly attributed to Japanese citrus consumption. This trial was registered in the Japanese Clinical Trials Registry (https://center6.umin.ac.jp/cgi-open-bin/ctr_e/ctr_view.cgi?recptno=R000017649) as UMIN000015494.