Recent development of contrast agents for magnetic resonance and multimodal imaging of glioblastoma

Glioblastoma (GBM) as the most common primary malignant brain tumor exhibits a high incidence and degree of malignancy as well as poor prognosis. Due to the existence of formidable blood–brain barrier (BBB) and the aggressive growth and infiltrating nature of GBM, timely diagnosis and treatment of GBM is still very challenging. Among different imaging modalities, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) with merits including high soft tissue resolution, non-invasiveness and non-limited penetration depth has become the preferred tool for GBM diagnosis. Furthermore, multimodal imaging with combination of MRI and other imaging modalities would not only synergistically integrate the pros, but also overcome the certain limitation in each imaging modality, offering more accurate morphological and pathophysiological information of brain tumors. Since contrast agents contribute to amplify imaging signal output for unambiguous pin-pointing of tumors, tremendous efforts have been devoted to advances of contrast agents for MRI and multimodal imaging. Herein, we put special focus on summary of the most recent advances of not only MRI contrast agents including iron oxide-, manganese (Mn)-, gadolinium (Gd)-, (19)F- and copper (Cu)-incorporated nanoplatforms for GBM imaging, but also dual-modal or triple-modal nanoprobes. Furthermore, potential obstacles and perspectives for future research and clinical translation of these contrast agents are discussed. We hope this review provides insights for scientists and students with interest in this area. GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT: [Image: see text]