The first step into phenolic metabolism in the hornwort Anthoceros agrestis: molecular and biochemical characterization of two phenylalanine ammonia-lyase isoforms

MAIN CONCLUSION: Two isoforms of phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) have been isolated as cDNA sequences from the hornwort Anthoceros agrestis. The encoded enzymes convert l-phenylalanine and to lower extents l-tyrosine and l-histidine. Thus, the functional presence of the general phenylpropanoid pathway in one of the earliest land plant groups is established. ABSTRACT: The hornwort Anthoceros agrestis has an elaborated phenolic metabolism resulting in phenolic compounds, such as rosmarinic acid or megacerotonic acid. The general phenylpropanoid pathway is involved in the biosynthesis of these compounds. Two phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) genes, AaPAL1 and AaPAL2, have been identified in Anthoceros agrestis and the protein with an N-terminal 6xHis-tag heterologously synthesized in Escherichia coli for a full biochemical characterization. Both PAL proteins accept l-phenylalanine, l-tyrosine as well as l-histidine as substrates, although the activity is explicitly the highest with l-phenylalanine. K(m) values as well as catalytic efficiencies were determined for phenylalanine (K(m) AaPAL1 39 µM, AaPAL2 18 µM) and tyrosine (K(m) AaPAL1 3.3 mM, AaPAL2 3.5 mM). In suspension cultures of Anthoceros agrestis, PAL genes were transcribed in parallel to rosmarinic acid (RA) accumulation and both showed highest abundance in the early growth phase. In a phylogenetic tree, both AaPAL amino acid sequences grouped within a clade with PAL amino acid sequences of diverse origin ranging from non-vascular to vascular plants, while most PALs from eudicots and monocots were mainly found in two other clades. The similarity of the hornwort PAL amino acid sequences to PAL sequences from vascular plants is more than 80% showing a strong conservation within the land plants. With this characterization of PALs from Anthoceros agrestis together with former investigations concerning cinnamic acid 4-hydroxylase and 4-coumaric acid CoA-ligase, the functional presence of the general phenylpropanoid pathway in this hornwort is proven. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s00425-022-03944-w.