Human recreation impacts seasonal activity and occupancy of American black bears (Ursus americanus) across the anthropogenic-wildland interface

Protected areas serve an important role in wildlife conservation, yet most wildlife occur outside these areas, subject to varying degrees of human disturbance. In the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, American black bears (Ursus americanus), a highly mobile, opportunistic species, are common despite an extensive outdoor recreation industry with the potential to affect black bear spatial and temporal activity. We investigated how environmental and anthropogenic factors influence black bear occupancy, detection, and diel activity patterns across the anthropogenic–wildland interface before and after hibernation. Using 30 camera traps deployed across a rural–wildland interface, we captured black bears at 23 camera sites (~ 77%), which exhibited co-occurrence with humans at 10 sites (~ 33%), revealing that human presence and human population density exert negative effects on black bear seasonal occupancy. Bears were more nocturnal during the hunting season, before hibernation. Human recreational activity increased ~ 38% after hibernation, but bear diurnal activity also increased ~ 36%, except when cubs were present. Our results suggest bears prioritize avoiding humans spatially, rather than temporally, except during the hunting season and when cubs are present. Understanding black bear responses to human recreation patterns and environmental variation is essential for minimizing human-mediated disturbance, and fueling conservation efforts of large, charismatic carnivores.