Changes in palaeoclimate and palaeoenvironment in the Upper Yangtze area (South China) during the Ordovician–Silurian transition

The Ordovician–Silurian transition was a critical period in geological history, during which profound changes in climatic, biotic, and oceanic conditions occurred. To explore the provenance, palaeoclimate, and palaeoredox conditions in the Sichuan Basin during the Late Ordovician–early Silurian interval, we conducted mineralogical, geochemical, and isotopic analyses of three formations (Wufeng, Guanyinqiao and Longmaxi formations) in the Xindi No. 2 well. The ternary and bivariate diagrams indicate that the provenance is mainly felsic igneous rocks and originated mainly from a collisional setting, presumably due to an active continental margin. The chemical index of alteration (CIA) values in the lower Wufeng and Longmaxi formations are relatively high (67.48–73.57), indicating a warm and humid climate. In contrast, the CIA values declined rapidly (58.30–64.66) during the late Katian to early Hirnantian, which had a fluctuating cold and dry climate and was interrupted by a transient warm and humid climate. The palaeoredox indices (Mo concentrations and Mo(auth)/U(auth), U/Th, V/Cr, Ni/Co, and V/V + Ni values) during the Late Ordovician–early Silurian indicate two cycles of water column euxinia. The first cycle occurred during Wufeng Formation deposition, with bottom waters evolving from oxic-suboxic to suboxic-anoxic. Most samples show relatively low redox-sensitive trace element concentrations during the Guanyinqiao Formation, pointing to oxic-suboxic conditions. The second cycle, during the late Hirnantian, transitioned from oxic to euxinic water conditions. Our δ(13)C(org) data are comparable to previously reported records and exhibit a strong correlation between the Hirnantian isotopic carbon excursion (HICE), climate change, and redox conditions. We suggest that the variations in the δ(13)C values are related to two elements: (1) increased photosynthetic activity under oxic water conditions, and (2) increased carbonate weathering exposed by the glacio-eustatic sea- level. In addition, the high δ(13)C(org) values might indicate a more shelf-proximal setting during Xindi No. 2 well deposition. The δ(13)C(org) isotopic data effectively constrain the timing of the Late Ordovician mass extinction (LOME) and the evolution of the temporal changes in the climatic and ocean redox conditions, suggesting an apparent stratigraphic coincidence between climate and redox fluctuations and two-phase extinctions, which implies a strong causal relationship. The LOME was systematically driven by the combination of cooler glacial temperatures, glacio-eustatic sea-level fluctuations, and anoxic water conditions that caused the two pulses of extinction in the Yangtze shelf sea.