The impact of COVID-19 lockdown on air pollution in Europe and North America: a systematic review

BACKGROUND: Multiple studies report reductions in air pollution associated with COVID-19 lockdowns. METHODS: We performed a systematic review of the changes observed in hazardous air pollutants known or suspected to be harmful to health, including nitrogen dioxide (NO(2)), nitrogen oxides (NO(x)), carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur dioxide (SO(2)), ozone (O(3)) and particulate matter (PM). We searched PubMed and Web of Science for studies reporting the associations of lockdowns with air pollutant changes during the COVID-19 pandemic in Europe and North America. RESULTS: One hundred nine studies were identified and analyzed. Several pollutants exhibited marked and sustained reductions. The strongest was NO(2) (93% of 89 estimated changes were reductions) followed by CO (88% of 33 estimated pollutant changes). All NO(x) and benzene studies reported significant reductions although these were based on fewer than 10 estimates. About three-quarters of PM(2.5) and PM(10) estimates showed reductions and few studies reported increases when domestic fuel use rose during COVID-19 lockdowns. In contrast, O(3) levels rose as NO(x) levels fell. SO(2) and ammonia (NH(3)) had mixed results. In general, greater reductions appeared when lockdowns were more severe, as well as where baseline pollutant levels were higher, such as at low-elevation and in densely populated areas. Substantial and robust reductions in NO(2), NO, CO, CO(2), PM(2.5), PM(10), benzene and air quality index pollution occurred in association with COVID-19 lockdowns. O(3) levels tended to increase, while SO(2) and NH(3) had mixed patterns. CONCLUSIONS: Our study shows the profound impact of human activity levels on air pollution and its potential avoidability.