Seed Priming with Spermine Mitigates Chromium Stress in Rice by Modifying the Ion Homeostasis, Cellular Ultrastructure and Phytohormones Balance

Chromium (Cr) is an important environmental constraint effecting crop productivity. Spermine (SPM) is a polyamine compound regulating plant responses to abiotic stresses. However, SPM-mediated tolerance mechanisms against Cr stress are less commonly explored in plants. Thus, current research was conducted to explore the protective mechanisms of SPM (0.01 mM) against Cr (100 µM) toxicity in two rice cultivars, CY927 (sensitive) and YLY689 (tolerant) at the seedling stage. Our results revealed that, alone, Cr exposure significantly reduced seed germination, biomass and photosynthetic related parameters, caused nutrient and hormonal imbalance, desynchronized antioxidant enzymes, and triggered oxidative damage by over-accretion of reactive oxygen species (ROS), malondialdehyde (MDA) and electrolyte leakage in both rice varieties, with greater impairments in CY927 than YLY689. However, seed priming with SPM notably improved or reversed the above-mentioned parameters, especially in YLY689. Besides, SPM stimulated the stress-responsive genes of endogenous phytohormones, especially salicylic acid (SA), as confirmed by the pronounced transcript levels of SA-related genes (OsPR1, OsPR2 and OsNPR1). Our findings specified that SPM enhanced rice tolerance against Cr toxicity via decreasing accumulation of Cr and markers of oxidative damage (H(2)O(2), O(2)(•−) and MDA), improving antioxidant defense enzymes, photosynthetic apparatus, nutrients and phytohormone balance.