Exposure and Inequality of PM(2.5) Pollution to Chinese Population: A Case Study of 31 Provincial Capital Cities from 2000 to 2016

Fine particulate matter (PM(2.5)) exposure has been linked to numerous adverse health effects, with some disadvantaged subgroups bearing a disproportionate exposure burden. Few studies have been conducted to estimate the exposure and inequality of different subgroups due to a lack of adequate characterization of disparities in exposure to air pollutants in urban areas, and a mechanistic understanding of the causes of these exposure inequalities. Based on a long-term series of PM(2.5) concentrations, this study analyzed the spatial and temporal characteristics of PM(2.5) in 31 provincial capital cities of China from 2000 to 2016 using the coefficient of variation and trend analyses. A health risk assessment of human exposure to PM(2.5) from 2000 to 2016 was then undertaken. A cumulative population-weighted average concentration method was applied to investigate exposures and inequality for education level, job category, age, gender and income population subgroups. The relationships between socioeconomic factors and PM(2.5) exposure concentrations were quantified using the geographically and temporally weighted regression model (GTWR). Results indicate that the PM(2.5) concentrations in most of the capital cities in the study experienced an increasing trend at a rate of 0.98 μg m(−3) per year from 2000 to 2016. The proportion of the population exposed to high PM(2.5) (above 35 μg m(−3)) increased annually, mainly due to the increase of population migrating into north, east, south and central China. The higher educated, older, higher income and urban secondary industry share (SIS) subgroups suffered from the most significant environmental inequality, respectively. The per capita GDP, population size, and the share of the secondary industry played an essential role in unequal exposure to PM(2.5).