Hydrochemical and isotopic baselines for understanding hydrological processes across Macquarie Island

Isotopic and hydrochemical data from lakes provide direct information on catchment response to changing rainfall, evaporation, nutrient cycling, and the health of ecosystems. These techniques have not been widely applied to lakes in the Southern Hemisphere high latitudes, including Southern Ocean Islands (SOIs) experiencing rapid, significant shifts in climate. Historical work has highlighted the localised nature of geochemical drivers in controlling the hydrochemical evolution of lakes, such as geology, sea spray contribution, vegetation, geographical location, and ice cover extent. The role of groundwater in lake hydrology and hydrochemistry has not been identified until now, and its omission will have major implications for interpreting soil–water–air processes affecting lakes. Here we present the first comprehensive, island-wide hydrochemical and isotopic survey of lakes on a SOI. Forty lakes were examined across Macquarie Island, using comparable methods to identify key environmental processes and their geochemical drivers. Methods include stable carbon (δ(13)C(DOC): dissolved organic carbon and δ(13)C(DIC): dissolved inorganic carbon), oxygen (δ(18)O), hydrogen (δ(2)H) and strontium isotopic ratios ((87)Sr/(86)Sr) in water. These provide essential baseline data for hydrological, biological, and geochemical lake processes. Lakes on the western side of the island are influenced by sea spray aerosols. In general, it was found that lakes at higher elevations are dilute and those located in lower elevation catchments have experienced more water–rock interactions. The hydrochemical and isotopic tracers suggest that lakes in lower elevations contain more terrestrial sourced ions that may be contributed from groundwater. Increasing temperatures and changing rainfall patterns predicted for the region will lead to shifts in nutrient cycles, and impact the island’s unique ecosystems. Future research will focus on long-term monitoring to understand seasonal, annual, and long-term variability to test fundamental hypotheses concerning ecosystem function and the consequences of environmental change on SOIs.