Occurrence, ecological risk assessment and source apportionment of pharmaceuticals, steroid hormones and xenoestrogens in the Ghanaian aquatic environments

Elevated levels of pharmaceuticals, steroid hormones and xenoestrogens (PSHXEs) in the aquatic environment pose a serious threat to the ecological balance. The endocrine disrupting PSHXEs in aquatic systems are linked to several adverse effects like reproductive health impairment, feminization, high mortality rate, decreased biodiversity etc. This study, therefore, sought to investigate the occurrence and the ecological risks posed by some selected PSHXEs and also conduct source apportionment of the PSHXEs in the Ghanaian aquatic environments. A total of 48 samples comprising 24 sediments and water each were taken from six waterbodies in Ghana. The samples were extracted using SPE cartridges for water and QuEChERS-dSPE for sediments. The analyses were done using Shimadzu Prominence UFLC 20A series. Ecological risk assessments were also conducted with the aid of USEPA T.E.S.T., whereas source apportionments were conducted using the APCS-MLR receptor model. Elevated mean total levels of PSHXEs ranging between 12,187 and 52,117 ng/L and 2,022–6,047 ng/g for water and sediment samples respectively were found. The risk quotients (RQ > 1) suggested a high risk posed by PSHXEs in water to organisms at the three trophic levels and also to benthic organisms in sediments of the Ghanaian aquatic environments for a short-term period. The APCS-MLR receptor model suggested three statistically significant sources (p < 0.05) designated by signature PSHXEs as domestic (major), mix hospital and industrial and agricultural waste sources. The source apportionment suggested increased use of steroid estrogens and anabolic drugs among the Ghana populace.