Carbon-based glyco-nanoplatforms: towards the next generation of glycan-based multivalent probes

Cell surface carbohydrates mediate a wide range of carbohydrate–protein interactions key to healthy and disease mechanisms. Many of such interactions are multivalent in nature and in order to study these processes at a molecular level, many glycan-presenting platforms have been developed over the years. Among those, carbon nanoforms such as graphene and their derivatives, carbon nanotubes, carbon dots and fullerenes, have become very attractive as biocompatible platforms that can mimic the multivalent presentation of biologically relevant glycosides. The most recent examples of carbon-based nanoplatforms and their applications developed over the last few years to study carbohydrate-mediate interactions in the context of cancer, bacterial and viral infections, among others, are highlighted in this review.