Seroprevalence of Chikungunya and Zika virus in nonhuman primates: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) and Zika virus (ZIKV) are mosquito-borne viruses that have caused several outbreaks worldwide. Aedes mosquitoes transmit these viruses mainly through sylvatic and urban transmission cycles. In the sylvatic cycle, nonhuman primates (NHPs) can be infected with CHIKV and ZIKV and may play an essential role as reservoirs for virus transmission. To improve our knowledge on the role of NHPs in the sylvatic cycle, we performed a systematic review and meta-analysis study on the seroprevalence of CHIKV and ZIKV worldwide in NHPs. According to the PRISMA guidelines, 17 CHIKV and 16 ZIKV seroprevalence studies in NHPs from 3 online databases: PubMed, Embase, and Scopus were selected. Data were extracted, including location and study year, type of NHP, sample size, serological tests, and seropositivity. All included studies have high-quality scores, between 5 and 8, corresponding to the grading criteria. Seroprevalence estimation was pooled using the ‘meta’ package in the R statistical software. The estimated pooled seroprevalence of CHIKV and ZIKV in NHP was 17% (95%CI: 5–34, I(2): 99%, p < 0.05) and 6% (95% CI: 2–12, I(2): 92%, p < 0.05), respectively. Most of the NHPs tested were wild Old World monkeys. The subgroup was analyzed by continents; high seropositive CHIKV and ZIKV were found in African NHPs at 35% (95% CI 9–66.0, I(2) = 100) and 16% (95% CI 1–44, I(2) = 97), respectively. While NHPs in America have 7% (95% CI 0-28, I(2) = 99) and 2% (95% CI 1-3, I(2) = 54) against CHIKV and ZIKV. In Asia, 6% (95% CI: 5–34, I(2) = 96) CHIKV seroprevalence and 7% (95% CI 0–20, I(2) = 98) ZIKV seroprevalence were found in NHP. This study provides a comprehensive overview of the seroprevalence of CHIKV and ZIKV among NHPs in various regions.