A brief measure of guilt and shame: validation of the Guilt and Shame Questionnaire (GSQ-8)

Background: Guilt and shame regulate basic human processes such as social cognition and relations. Both emotions are also involved in the aetiology and maintenance of trauma-related mental disorders such as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). However, a concise scale that adequately captures these constructs is currently lacking, impeding research efforts to understand them more thoroughly. Objective: To this end, we developed the eight-item Guilt and Shame Questionnaire (GSQ-8) in English, German, and Dutch. Method: We examined the reliability and validity of the GSQ-8 in a clinical sample of adults seeking treatment for childhood-trauma-related posttraumatic stress disorder (n = 209), a sample of adults who had suffered at least one traumatic life event reporting different levels of PTSD symptoms (n = 556), and a non-clinical sample of adults (n = 156). Results: Theory-driven confirmatory factor analyses confirmed two correlated latent factors guilt and shame with four items for each factor. Across all samples, two-factor models yielded better model fit than one-factor solutions. Measurement invariance across the three samples, gender, and Dutch and German language was mostly established. Guilt and shame composite scores were associated with PTSD symptoms, depressive symptoms, life satisfaction, mental health-related quality of life, and self-blame, thus supporting scale validity. Importantly, both subscales predicted PTSD symptoms, depression, life satisfaction, and mental health-related quality of life over and above cognitions of self-blame. Conclusions: The GSQ-8 is a parsimonious, reliable, and valid tool to assess guilt and shame in clinical, sub-clinical, and non-clinical populations, allowing applications across a broad range of research questions.