Influence of air pollution on influenza-like illness in China: A nationwide time-series analysis

BACKGROUND: Evidence concerning effects of air pollution on influenza-like illness (ILI) from multi-center is limited and little is known about how regional factors might modify this relationship. METHODS: In this ecological study, ILI cases defined as outpatients with temperature ≥38 °C, accompanied by cough or sore throat, were collected from National Influenza Surveillance Network in China. We adopted generalized additive model with quasi-Poisson to estimate province-specific association between air pollution and ILI in 30 Chinese provinces during 2015–2019, after adjusting for time trend and meteorological factors. We then pooled province-specific association by using random-effect meta-analysis. Potential effect modifications of season and regional characteristics were explored. FINDINGS: A total of 26, 004, 853 ILI cases and 777, 223, 877 hospital outpatients were collected. In general, effects of air pollutants were acute. An inter-quartile range increase of PM(2.5), SO(2), PM(10), NO(2) and CO at lag0, and O(3) at lag0-2 was associated with 3.08% (95% CI: 1.91%, 4.27%), 3.00% (1.86%, 4.16%), 6.46% (4.71%, 8.25%), 7.21% (5.73%, 8.71%), 4.37% (3.05%, 5.70%), and −9.26% (−11.32%, −7.14%) change of ILI at national level, respectively. Associations between air pollutants and ILI varied by season and regions, with higher effect estimates in cold season, eastern and central regions and provinces with more humid condition and larger population. INTERPRETATION: This study indicated that most air pollutants increased the risk of ILI in China. Our findings might provide implications for the development of policies to protect public health from air pollution and influenza. FUNDING: 10.13039/100014717National Natural Science Foundation of China and Chongqing Health Commission Program.