Spontaneous, naturally occurring cancers in non-human primates as a translational model for cancer immunotherapy

The complexity of cancer immunotherapy (CIT) demands reliable preclinical models to successfully translate study findings to the clinics. Non-human primates (NHPs; here referring to rhesus and cynomolgus macaques) share broad similarities with humans including physiology, genetic homology, and importantly also immune cell populations, immune regulatory mechanisms, and protein targets for CIT. Furthermore, NHP naturally develop cancers such as colorectal and breast cancer with an incidence, pathology, and age pattern comparable to humans. Thus, these tumor-bearing monkeys (TBMs) have the potential to bridge the experimental gap between early preclinical cancer models and patients with human cancer. This review presents our current knowledge of NHP immunology, the incidence and features of naturally-occurring cancers in NHP, and recent TBM trials investigating CIT to provide a scientific rationale for this unique model for human cancer.