Hawk owl irruptions: spatial and temporal variation in rodent abundance drive push and pull dynamics

Bird irruptions are thought to be triggered by low food availability in breeding areas, thereby causing emigration (push factor). However, few studies have tested whether emigrating individuals are drawn towards areas of high food availability (pull factor). The Northern hawk owl (Surnia ulula), a rodent specialist, occurs irruptively to southern parts of Fennoscandia. We analysed whether irruption size during 1980–2020 in southeastern Norway was related to rodent abundance at four sites 450–990 km to the north-northeast (potential source areas) and at two sites in southeastern Norway to test push and pull dynamics of irruptions. Irruptions occurred when rodent abundance in potential source areas were low, supporting the push hypothesis. High rodent abundance in potential source areas 1–2 years before irruptions suggested that irruptions were preceded by high reproduction. Upon arrival to southeastern Norway, hawk owls did not encounter high rodent abundance in their main habitat (boreal forest). However, hawk owls stayed in boreal forest in hills in years with higher microtine rodent abundance, but occurred in farmland areas in the lowlands when microtine rodents were less abundant. Use of lowlands coincided with higher than median numbers of wood mouse (Apodemus sylvaticus) for 87% of the hawk owls settling in the lowlands, thus suggesting support for the pull hypothesis. In conclusion, hawk owl irruptions to southern Fennoscandia were triggered by low food availability in northern areas (push factor), and appeared to be drawn by high food availability in southeastern Norway to some degree (pull factor). SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s00442-022-05283-9.