3D bioprinting of an implantable xeno‐free vascularized human skin graft

Bioengineered tissues or organs produced using matrix proteins or components derived from xenogeneic sources pose risks of allergic responses, immune rejection, or even autoimmunity. Here, we report successful xeno‐free isolation, expansion, and cryopreservation of human endothelial cells (EC), fibroblasts (FBs), pericytes (PCs), and keratinocytes (KCs). We further demonstrate the bioprinting of a human skin substitute with a dermal layer containing xeno‐free cultured human EC, FBs, and PCs in a xeno‐free bioink containing human collagen type I and fibronectin layered in a biocompatible polyglycolic acid mesh and subsequently seeded with xeno‐free human KCs to form an epidermal layer. Following implantation of such bilayered skin grafts on the dorsum of immunodeficient mice, KCs form a mature stratified epidermis with rete ridge‐like structures. The ECs and PCs form human EC‐lined perfused microvessels within 2 weeks after implantation, preventing graft necrosis, and eliciting further perfusion of the graft by angiogenic host microvessels. As proof‐of‐concept, we generated 12 individual grafts using a single donor of all four cell types. In summary, we describe the fabrication of a bioprinted vascularized bilayered skin substitute under completely xeno‐free culture conditions demonstrating feasibility of a xeno‐free approach to complex tissue engineering.