A review of the occurrence, distribution, and impact of bitumen seeps on soil and groundwater in parts of southwestern Nigeria

The impact of bitumen components on soil and groundwater resources is of environmental importance. Contaminants’ influx into the environment from bitumen components through anthropogenic activities such as exploration, mining, transportation, and usage of bitumen in all its forms have been reported globally. However, gaps exist in the geogenic occurrence of bitumen in the shallow subsurface such as in southwest Nigeria, contaminating the soil and groundwater resources. This review presents in situ bitumen seeps as a source of geogenic soil and groundwater contaminants in southwestern Nigeria. We conducted a systematic review of literatures based on defined selection criteria. We derived information on the state of knowledge about bitumen seep occurrences and distribution in southwestern Nigeria. Also, the processes that exacerbate bitumen contaminants’ influx into soil and groundwater were enunciated. At the same time, case examples highlighted areas for possible in situ bitumen contamination studies in Nigeria. The results of this review showed that a multidisciplinary approach has been employed to assess and monitor the contaminants resulting from the various activities involving the exploitation and application of bitumen in Nigeria. These studies emphasize bitumen contaminants as emanating from anthropogenic sources. The results also suggested that bitumen studies have been mainly exploratory to improve the understanding of the economic potential of the hydrocarbon reserve. Also, recent advances in bitumen contaminants studies accounted for the heterogeneous nature of the bitumen. This allows for the optimized categorization of the mechanism and processes undergone by the different bitumen components when released as environmental contaminants. However, a knowledge gap exists in characterizing and understanding the effects of in situ bitumen seeps as a geogenic source of soil and groundwater contamination. This review identifies the possibility of geogenic soil and groundwater contamination by in situ bitumen seeps in the coastal plain sand of the Dahomey basin in southwestern Nigeria. The impact of the bitumen contaminants on the environment was discussed, while methods for accessing the occurrence and distribution of the bitumen contaminants were highlighted.