Distribution of energy and macronutrient intakes across eating occasions in European children from 3 to 8 years of age: The EU Childhood Obesity Project Study

PURPOSE: We aimed to characterize the distribution of energy and macronutrient intakes across eating occasions (EO) in European children from preschool to school age. METHODS: Data from 3-day weighed food records were collected from children at ages 3, 4, 5, 6 and 8 years from Belgium, Germany, Italy, Poland and Spain. Food intakes were assigned to EO based on country-specific daytimes for breakfast, lunch, supper and snacks (morning, afternoon). The average energy and nutrient intakes were expressed as percentage of total energy intake (%E). Nutrients were additionally expressed as percentage per EO (%E(EO)). Foods were assigned to food groups; variation in intake was calculated via coefficient of variation (CV). We analyzed age trends in diurnal intake using mixed-effects beta regression. RESULTS: The 740 healthy children included in the analysis consumed the largest proportion of daily energy at lunch (31%E ± 8, M ± SD) and supper (26%E ± 8), followed by breakfast (19%E ± 7) and snacks [afternoon (16%E ± 8); morning (8%E ± 7)], with the most variable intake at morning snack (CV = 0.9). The nutrient composition at lunch and supper was highest for fat (36 ± 9%E(Lunch); 39 ± 11%E(Supper)) and protein (18 ± 5%E(Lunch); 18 ± 6%E(Supper)) and at breakfast and snacks for carbohydrates (54 ± 12%E(Breakfast); 62 ± 12%E(Snacks)). High-sugar content foods were consumed in relatively large proportions at breakfast and snacks. Food intakes varied significantly with age, with lower snack intakes at later ages (p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: Possibly unhealthy EOs with high-fat intakes and high-sugar-content foods were observed. Changes in nutrient composition of EOs may be beneficial for health. Trial registry: ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT00338689; 19/June/2006. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s00394-022-02944-6.