Characteristics and Risk Assessment of Environmentally Persistent Free Radicals (EPFRs) of PM(2.5) in Lahore, Pakistan

Environmentally persistent free radicals (EPFRs) are an emerging pollutant and source of oxidative stress. Samples of PM(2.5) were collected at the urban sites of Lahore in both winter and summertime of 2019. The chemical composition of PM(2.5), EPRF concentration, OH radical generation, and risk assessment of EPFRs in PM(2.5) were evaluated. The average concentration of PM(2.5) in wintertime and summertime in Lahore is 15 and 4.6 times higher than the national environmental quality standards (NEQS) of Pakistan and WHO. The dominant components of PM(2.5) are carbonaceous species. The concentration of EPFRs and reactive oxygen species (ROS), such as OH radicals, is higher in the winter than in the summertime. The secondary inorganic ions do not contribute to the generation of OH radicals, although the contribution of SO(4)(2+), NO(3)(−), and NH(4)(+) to the mass concentration of PM(2.5) is greater in summertime. The atmospheric EPFRs are used to evaluate the exposure risk. The EPFRs in PM(2.5) and cigarette smoke have shown similar toxicity to humans. In winter and summer, the residents of Lahore inhaled the amount of EPFRs equivalent to 4.0 and 0.6 cigarettes per person per day, respectively. Compared to Joaquin County, USA, the residents of Lahore are 1.8 to 14.5 times more exposed to EPFRs in summer and wintertime. The correlation analysis of atmospheric EPFRs (spin/m(3)) and carbonaceous species of PM(2.5) indicates that coal combustion, biomass burning, and vehicle emissions are the possible sources of EPFRs in the winter and summertime. In both winter and summertime, metallic and carbonaceous species correlated well with OH radical generation, suggesting that vehicular emissions, coal combustion, and industrial emissions contributed to the OH radical generation. The study’s findings provide valuable information and data for evaluating the potential health effects of EPFRs in South Asia and implementing effective air pollution control strategies.