Operando Characterization and Theoretical Modeling of Metal|Electrolyte Interphase Growth Kinetics in Solid-State Batteries. Part I: Experiments

[Image: see text] To harness all of the benefits of solid-state battery (SSB) architectures in terms of energy density, their negative electrode should be an alkali metal. However, the high chemical potential of alkali metals makes them prone to reduce most solid electrolytes (SE), resulting in a decomposition layer called an interphase at the metal|SE interface. Quantitative information about the interphase chemical composition and rate of formation is challenging to obtain because the reaction occurs at a buried interface. In this study, a thin layer of Na metal (Na(0)) is plated on the surface of an SE of the NaSICON family (Na(3.4)Zr(2)Si(2.4)P(0.6)O(12) or NZSP) inside a commercial X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) system while continuously analyzing the composition of the interphase operando. We identify the existence of a solid electrolyte interphase at the Na(0)|NZSP interface, and more importantly, we demonstrate for the first time that this protocol can be used to study the kinetics of interphase formation. A second important outcome of this article is that the surface chemistry of NZSP samples can be tuned to improve their stability against Na(0). It is demonstrated by XPS and time-resolved electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) that a native Na(x)PO(y) layer present on the surface of as-sintered NZSP samples protects their surface against decomposition.